鑄態(tai)金屬常見的組織缺陷有縮孔(kong)、疏松、偏(pian)析、內裂紋(wen)、氣(qi)泡(pao)和白點等。
1. 縮(suo)孔
金屬在冷凝過(guo)程中由于體(ti)積(ji)(ji)的(de)(de)收(shou)縮(suo)(suo)(suo)而在鑄(zhu)錠或(huo)鑄(zhu)件心部形成管狀(zhuang)(zhuang)(或(huo)喇叭狀(zhuang)(zhuang))或(huo)分(fen)散的(de)(de)孔(kong)洞(dong),稱為(wei)縮(suo)(suo)(suo)孔(kong)。縮(suo)(suo)(suo)孔(kong)的(de)(de)相對(dui)體(ti)積(ji)(ji)與(yu)與(yu)液態金屬的(de)(de)溫度(du)、冷卻(que)條件以及鑄(zhu)件的(de)(de)大小(xiao)等有關。液態金屬的(de)(de)溫度(du)越(yue)高,則液體(ti)與(yu)固體(ti)之間的(de)(de)體(ti)積(ji)(ji)差越(yue)大,而縮(suo)(suo)(suo)孔(kong)的(de)(de)體(ti)積(ji)(ji)也(ye)越(yue)大。向薄壁鑄(zhu)型(xing)中澆注金屬時,型(xing)壁越(yue)薄、則受熱(re)越(yue)快,液態金屬越(yue)不易冷卻(que),在剛澆完鑄(zhu)型(xing)時,液態金屬的(de)(de)體(ti)積(ji)(ji)也(ye)越(yue)大,金屬冷凝后的(de)(de)縮(suo)(suo)(suo)孔(kong)也(ye)就越(yue)大。
2. 疏松
在急速(su)冷卻的(de)(de)(de)(de)條(tiao)件下澆注金(jin)屬,可(ke)避免在鑄錠上部形(xing)成集中(zhong)縮(suo)(suo)孔,但(dan)此時液體金(jin)屬與固態金(jin)屬之間的(de)(de)(de)(de)體積(ji)差仍保持(chi)一定(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)數值(zhi),雖(sui)然在表面上似乎已經消除(chu)了大的(de)(de)(de)(de)縮(suo)(suo)孔,可(ke)是有許多細小縮(suo)(suo)孔即疏(shu)松(song),分(fen)布(bu)在金(jin)屬的(de)(de)(de)(de)整個體積(ji)中(zhong)。 鋼材在鍛造和(he)軋制過程中(zhong),疏(shu)松(song)情況可(ke)得到很大程度的(de)(de)(de)(de)改善,但(dan)若由于(yu)原(yuan)(yuan)鋼錠的(de)(de)(de)(de)疏(shu)松(song)較(jiao)為嚴(yan)重(zhong)、壓(ya)縮(suo)(suo)比不足等原(yuan)(yuan)因,則在熱(re)加工后較(jiao)嚴(yan)重(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)疏(shu)松(song)仍會存(cun)在。此外,當(dang)原(yuan)(yuan)鋼錠中(zhong)存(cun)在著較(jiao)多的(de)(de)(de)(de)氣(qi)泡,而(er)在熱(re)軋過程中(zhong)焊(han)合不良,或沸(fei)騰鋼中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)氣(qi)泡分(fen)布(bu)不良,以致影響焊(han)合,亦可(ke)能形(xing)成疏(shu)松(song)。
疏松的存在具(ju)有較大的危害性,主(zhu)要有以下幾(ji)種:
a. 在(zai)鑄(zhu)件(jian)中(zhong),由于疏(shu)松的存在(zai),顯著(zhu)降低(di)其力(li)學性能(neng),可能(neng)使其在(zai)使用(yong)過(guo)程中(zhong)成為(wei)疲勞源而(er)發(fa)生斷裂(lie)。在(zai)用(yong)作液(ye)體容(rong)器或管道(dao)的鑄(zhu)件(jian)中(zhong),有時會存在(zai)基(ji)本上相互(hu)連接的疏(shu)松,以(yi)致不能(neng)通過(guo)水壓試驗,或在(zai)使用(yong)過(guo)程中(zhong)發(fa)生滲漏現(xian)象;
b. 鋼(gang)材中如(ru)存(cun)在疏松(song)(song),亦會降低其力學性(xing)能(neng),但(dan)因在熱加(jia)工過程中一般能(neng)減少或消(xiao)除疏松(song)(song),故疏松(song)(song)對(dui)鋼(gang)材性(xing)能(neng)的影響比鑄件(jian)的小;
c. 金屬中存在較嚴重的疏松,對機械(xie)加工后的表面(mian)粗糙度有一定(ding)的影響。
3. 偏析
金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)在冷凝(ning)(ning)過程中,由(you)(you)(you)于(yu)(yu)某些因素的(de)(de)(de)(de)影(ying)響而(er)形(xing)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)化(hua)學成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)分(fen)(fen)不(bu)均勻(yun)現(xian)象(xiang)稱(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)分(fen)(fen)為(wei)(wei)晶(jing)(jing)內(nei)(nei)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)、晶(jing)(jing)間(jian)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)、區(qu)域(yu)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)、比重偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。 由(you)(you)(you)于(yu)(yu)擴散(san)不(bu)足(zu),在凝(ning)(ning)固(gu)(gu)后的(de)(de)(de)(de)金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)中,便存在晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)范(fan)(fan)圍內(nei)(nei)的(de)(de)(de)(de)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)分(fen)(fen)不(bu)均勻(yun)現(xian)象(xiang),即(ji)晶(jing)(jing)內(nei)(nei)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。基于(yu)(yu)同(tong)一(yi)(yi)原(yuan)因,在固(gu)(gu)溶(rong)體(ti)(ti)(ti)金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)中,后凝(ning)(ning)固(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)與先(xian)凝(ning)(ning)固(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)分(fen)(fen)也(ye)會不(bu)同(tong),即(ji)晶(jing)(jing)間(jian)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。碳化(hua)物偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)是一(yi)(yi)種(zhong)(zhong)晶(jing)(jing)間(jian)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。 在澆注鑄(zhu)鍵(或鑄(zhu)件)時,由(you)(you)(you)于(yu)(yu)通過鑄(zhu)型壁強烈的(de)(de)(de)(de)定向散(san)熱,在進行著(zhu)凝(ning)(ning)固(gu)(gu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)合金(jin)內(nei)(nei)便形(xing)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)一(yi)(yi)個較大的(de)(de)(de)(de)溫(wen)差(cha)(cha)。結(jie)果就必然導致(zhi)外層區(qu)域(yu)富(fu)(fu)集高(gao)熔(rong)點組(zu)(zu)元(yuan),而(er)心部則富(fu)(fu)集低熔(rong)點組(zu)(zu)元(yuan),同(tong)時也(ye)富(fu)(fu)集著(zhu)凝(ning)(ning)固(gu)(gu)時析(xi)(xi)出(chu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)非(fei)金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)雜(za)質和(he)氣體(ti)(ti)(ti)等。這(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)稱(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)區(qu)域(yu)偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。 在金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)冷凝(ning)(ning)過程中,如果析(xi)(xi)出(chu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)與余(yu)下的(de)(de)(de)(de)溶(rong)液(ye)(ye)兩者密度不(bu)同(tong)時,這(zhe)些晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)便傾向于(yu)(yu)在溶(rong)液(ye)(ye)中下沉(chen)或上浮,所形(xing)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)化(hua)學成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)分(fen)(fen)不(bu)均勻(yun)現(xian)象(xiang),稱(cheng)(cheng)為(wei)(wei)比重偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)。晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)與余(yu)下的(de)(de)(de)(de)溶(rong)液(ye)(ye)之間(jian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)密度差(cha)(cha)越(yue)(yue)(yue)大,比重偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)越(yue)(yue)(yue)大。這(zhe)種(zhong)(zhong)密度差(cha)(cha)取決于(yu)(yu)金(jin)屬(shu)(shu)組(zu)(zu)元(yuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)密度差(cha)(cha),以(yi)及晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)與溶(rong)液(ye)(ye)之間(jian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)成(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)分(fen)(fen)差(cha)(cha)。如果冷卻越(yue)(yue)(yue)緩(huan)慢,隨(sui)著(zhu)溫(wen)度降低初生晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)數量的(de)(de)(de)(de)增(zeng)加(jia)越(yue)(yue)(yue)緩(huan)慢,則晶(jing)(jing)體(ti)(ti)(ti)在溶(rong)液(ye)(ye)中能自(zi)由(you)(you)(you)浮沉(chen)的(de)(de)(de)(de)溫(wen)度范(fan)(fan)圍越(yue)(yue)(yue)大,因而(er)比重偏(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)(pian)析(xi)(xi)也(ye)越(yue)(yue)(yue)強烈。
4. 氣泡
金(jin)屬在(zai)熔融狀態時(shi)能溶(rong)解大量的氣(qi)(qi)體(ti),在(zai)冷凝過(guo)程中因溶(rong)解度隨溫度的降低而急劇減小,致使氣(qi)(qi)體(ti)從液態金(jin)屬中釋放(fang)出(chu)(chu)來。若此時(shi)金(jin)屬已完全(quan)凝固,則剩下的氣(qi)(qi)體(ti)不易逸出(chu)(chu),有一部分(fen)就包容在(zai)還處(chu)于塑性狀態的金(jin)屬中,于是形成氣(qi)(qi)孔,則稱其為氣(qi)(qi)泡。
氣泡的(de)有害影(ying)響(xiang)表(biao)現如(ru)下:
a. 氣泡減少金(jin)屬鑄件的(de)有效截面,由于其(qi)缺口效應,大大降低(di)了材料(liao)的(de)強度;
b. 當鑄錠表面(mian)存在著氣泡時(shi),在熱(re)(re)鍛加(jia)熱(re)(re)時(shi)可能被氧化,在隨后(hou)的鍛壓過程中不能焊合而形成細紋或裂縫;
c. 在沸騰(teng)鋼及(ji)某(mou)些合(he)金中,由于氣泡(pao)的(de)存在還可能產(chan)生偏析導致裂縫。
5. 白點
在經侵蝕后的橫向(xiang)截面(mian)上,呈現較多(duo)短小的不(bu)連(lian)續(xu)的發(fa)絲狀裂縫;而在縱向(xiang)斷面(mian)上會(hui)發(fa)現表(biao)面(mian)光滑、銀白色的圓形或橢圓形的斑點,這種缺陷稱為白點。
白(bai)點最容(rong)易產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)在(zai)鎳、鉻、錳作為(wei)合(he)金(jin)(jin)(jin)元素的(de)合(he)金(jin)(jin)(jin)結(jie)構(gou)鋼(gang)(gang)(gang)及低合(he)金(jin)(jin)(jin)工具(ju)鋼(gang)(gang)(gang)中(zhong)。 奧氏體不(bu)銹鋼(gang)(gang)(gang)及萊(lai)氏體鋼(gang)(gang)(gang)中(zhong),從未發(fa)現過(guo)白(bai)點;鑄鋼(gang)(gang)(gang)中(zhong)也可能發(fa)現白(bai)點,但(dan)極為(wei)罕見;焊接工件的(de)熔焊金(jin)(jin)(jin)屬中(zhong)偶爾也會產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)白(bai)點。
白(bai)點(dian)的(de)(de)(de)產生與(yu)鋼材(cai)(cai)(cai)的(de)(de)(de)尺寸也有(you)一定的(de)(de)(de)關系,橫(heng)截面(mian)的(de)(de)(de)直(zhi)徑(jing)或(huo)厚度(du)小于(yu)30mm的(de)(de)(de)鋼材(cai)(cai)(cai)不(bu)易產生白(bai)點(dian)。 通(tong)常(chang)具有(you)白(bai)點(dian)的(de)(de)(de)鋼材(cai)(cai)(cai)縱(zong)(zong)向(xiang)抗(kang)拉強度(du)與(yu)彈(dan)性(xing)(xing)極限降低(di)并不(bu)多,但伸(shen)長率(lv)則顯(xian)著降低(di),尤其是(shi)斷面(mian)收縮率(lv)與(yu)沖擊韌(ren)性(xing)(xing)降低(di)得(de)更(geng)多,有(you)時(shi)可能接近(jin)于(yu)零(ling)。且這種鋼材(cai)(cai)(cai)的(de)(de)(de)橫(heng)向(xiang)力(li)學性(xing)(xing)能比縱(zong)(zong)向(xiang)力(li)學性(xing)(xing)能降低(di)得(de)多。因此具有(you)白(bai)點(dian)的(de)(de)(de)鋼材(cai)(cai)(cai)一般不(bu)能使用。