超聲探傷儀、超聲波探頭、測試塊和耦合劑等是超聲檢測系統的重要組成部分。超聲波檢測的主要設備是超聲波探傷儀,它可以快速、方便、無損傷地檢測、定位、評估和診斷工件中的各種缺陷。由于超聲波探頭可實現電聲轉換,所以超聲波探頭也叫超聲波換能器,其電聲轉換是可逆的,且轉換時間極短,可以忽略不計。根據超聲波的產生方式和電聲轉換的不同,超聲波換能器有很多種。這些電聲轉換方式有:利用某些金屬(鐵磁性材料)在交變磁場中的磁致伸縮,產生和接收超聲波;利用電磁感應原理產生電磁超聲以及利用機械振動、熱效應和靜電法等都能產生和接收超聲波,利用壓電效應原理制成的壓電材料是目前用得最多的超聲換能器。



1. 壓電效應


  有(you)一種晶體(ti)(ti)(ti),當受到擠壓(ya)(ya)或者拉(la)伸作(zuo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)力(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)時候,產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)形變,使得其中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)帶電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)質點發生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)相對位(wei)移,因此大小相等(deng)極性(xing)相反的(de)(de)(de)(de)正(zheng)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)荷和負電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)荷會出(chu)現(xian)(xian)在晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)表面(mian),然(ran)后在兩端產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)不同的(de)(de)(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)荷,此時晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)將處于帶電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)狀態,并且由作(zuo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)力(li)產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)荷量(liang)與作(zuo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)力(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)大小成正(zheng)比(bi);當作(zuo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)力(li)撤(che)去之后,晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)恢復(fu)到它的(de)(de)(de)(de)中(zhong)性(xing)狀態,這種現(xian)(xian)象(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)被(bei)(bei)稱(cheng)作(zuo)正(zheng)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying)。當此類(lei)晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)處于電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)場中(zhong)時,晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)會沿一定(ding)的(de)(de)(de)(de)方向產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)機械形變;電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)場撤(che)去之后形變消失(shi),晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)恢復(fu)原狀,這種現(xian)(xian)象(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)被(bei)(bei)稱(cheng)為逆(ni)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying)或電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)致伸縮效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying)。正(zheng)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying)與逆(ni)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying)被(bei)(bei)統稱(cheng)為壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)效(xiao)(xiao)應(ying)(ying)(ying),如圖(tu)3.1所示。這種物(wu)理現(xian)(xian)象(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)在1880年(nian)被(bei)(bei)居里兄弟發現(xian)(xian),正(zheng)是(shi)由于這種現(xian)(xian)象(xiang)(xiang)(xiang),壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)被(bei)(bei)廣泛應(ying)(ying)(ying)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于產(chan)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)超聲波(bo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)晶體(ti)(ti)(ti)振蕩器。


圖 1.jpg


  壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)效應(ying)的(de)原理是(shi),如果對壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)材料(liao)施加(jia)壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)力,就(jiu)會(hui)產生電(dian)(dian)(dian)位差(稱為(wei)正(zheng)壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)效應(ying)),反(fan)之施加(jia)電(dian)(dian)(dian)壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)時,會(hui)產生機械應(ying)力(稱為(wei)逆壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)效應(ying))。如果壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)力是(shi)高頻(pin)(pin)振(zhen)動(dong),就(jiu)會(hui)產生高頻(pin)(pin)電(dian)(dian)(dian)流。當高頻(pin)(pin)電(dian)(dian)(dian)信號應(ying)用(yong)于壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷上時,會(hui)產生高頻(pin)(pin)聲信號(機械振(zhen)動(dong)),通常稱為(wei)超聲信號。也就(jiu)是(shi)說,壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)晶(jing)片可以因機械形變(bian)產生電(dian)(dian)(dian)場(chang),也可以因電(dian)(dian)(dian)場(chang)的(de)作用(yong)產生機械形變(bian),實現機械能與(yu)電(dian)(dian)(dian)能之間的(de)轉換和逆轉換,這(zhe)種內在(zai)的(de)機電(dian)(dian)(dian)耦合效應(ying)使(shi)得(de)壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)(dian)晶(jing)體在(zai)工程中得(de)到了(le)廣泛的(de)應(ying)用(yong)。



2. 壓電晶體


  在機械力的(de)(de)作用(yong)(yong)下,產(chan)生形變,使帶電(dian)(dian)(dian)粒(li)子具(ju)有(you)相(xiang)對位移(yi),使晶(jing)(jing)體表面具(ju)有(you)正負(fu)束縛電(dian)(dian)(dian)荷,這(zhe)樣的(de)(de)晶(jing)(jing)體叫(jiao)作壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)晶(jing)(jing)體。壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)晶(jing)(jing)體極軸(zhou)兩端產(chan)生的(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)(dian)勢差的(de)(de)性(xing)質稱(cheng)為壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)特性(xing)。分(fen)為單(dan)晶(jing)(jing)體與多(duo)(duo)晶(jing)(jing)體,其中多(duo)(duo)晶(jing)(jing)體材料(liao)(liao)又(you)稱(cheng)作壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷。硫(liu)酸(suan)鋰、鈮酸(suan)鋰、石英等(deng)為常用(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)單(dan)晶(jing)(jing)材料(liao)(liao)。常用(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)多(duo)(duo)晶(jing)(jing)材料(liao)(liao)有(you)鈦酸(suan)鋇、鈦酸(suan)鉛等(deng)。多(duo)(duo)晶(jing)(jing)體材料(liao)(liao)又(you)稱(cheng)為壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷。其中單(dan)晶(jing)(jing)體材料(liao)(liao)對接收(shou)更(geng)靈敏,多(duo)(duo)晶(jing)(jing)材料(liao)(liao)的(de)(de)發射靈敏度(du)較高。


  超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)換(huan)(huan)能(neng)器(qi)中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)晶片(pian)具(ju)有壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)效(xiao)應(ying)(ying),可利用超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)換(huan)(huan)能(neng)器(qi)中(zhong)壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)芯片(pian)的(de)(de)(de)壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)效(xiao)應(ying)(ying)實現超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)的(de)(de)(de)產(chan)(chan)生(sheng)和接收。在(zai)壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)晶體(ti)(ti)兩側的(de)(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)極通(tong)交流電(dian)(dian),通(tong)過(guo)逆壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)效(xiao)應(ying)(ying)可知,晶片(pian)會在(zai)厚度方向產(chan)(chan)生(sheng)伸縮(suo)的(de)(de)(de)機械振動(dong),將電(dian)(dian)能(neng)轉換(huan)(huan)成聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)能(neng)(機械能(neng)),此時探(tan)頭便發(fa)射出超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo),再通(tong)過(guo)合(he)適(shi)的(de)(de)(de)耦(ou)合(he)劑(ji)與(yu)待檢測工(gong)件(jian)連(lian)接,振動(dong)產(chan)(chan)生(sheng)的(de)(de)(de)超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)便進(jin)入了(le)工(gong)件(jian)。當壓(ya)電(dian)(dian)晶片(pian)接收到超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)時,受到聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)能(neng)量的(de)(de)(de)激發(fa)便會產(chan)(chan)生(sheng)振動(dong)發(fa)生(sheng)機械形變從而(er)使(shi)晶體(ti)(ti)兩個表(biao)面(mian)產(chan)(chan)生(sheng)大小相同極性相反的(de)(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)荷,形成超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)頻(pin)率的(de)(de)(de)高(gao)頻(pin)電(dian)(dian)壓(ya),超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)探(tan)傷儀的(de)(de)(de)接收電(dian)(dian)路正是(shi)通(tong)過(guo)對(dui)返回的(de)(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)信號進(jin)行(xing)一系列(lie)處(chu)理從而(er)判斷(duan)工(gong)件(jian)是(shi)否有傷。顯(xian)然,超(chao)(chao)(chao)聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)波(bo)(bo)(bo)換(huan)(huan)能(neng)器(qi)的(de)(de)(de)作用是(shi)實現聲(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)能(neng)與(yu)電(dian)(dian)能(neng)的(de)(de)(de)相互轉換(huan)(huan)。


 壓(ya)電(dian)晶體分(fen)為單壓(ya)電(dian)晶體與多晶壓(ya)電(dian)陶瓷。其(qi)中,壓(ya)電(dian)陶瓷占有相當大的(de)比(bi)重,是市場上應用最(zui)為廣(guang)泛(fan)的(de)壓(ya)電(dian)材料。分(fen)述如下(xia):


  a. 壓電單晶(jing)體:  石英、水溶(rong)性壓電晶(jing)體(酒(jiu)石酸鉀(jia)鈉(na)、酒(jiu)石酸乙烯二(er)銨、酒(jiu)石酸二(er)鉀(jia)、硫(liu)酸鉀(jia)等)。


  b. 多晶(jing)體壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷(ci):   鈦(tai)酸鋇壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷(ci)、鋯(gao)鈦(tai)酸鉛系(xi)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷(ci)、鈮(ni)酸鹽系(xi)壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷(ci)和鈮(ni)鎂酸鉛壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)為代表性的壓(ya)(ya)電(dian)(dian)陶(tao)瓷(ci)。




3. 壓電單晶體


 石(shi)英晶體性(xing)能穩定,機械強度高(gao),絕緣性(xing)能好,但價(jia)格昂貴,壓電(dian)系數遠低于壓電(dian)陶瓷(ci),所(suo)以(yi)一般僅用(yong)于標準儀(yi)器(qi)或(huo)要(yao)求較高(gao)的(de)傳(chuan)感器(qi)。石(shi)英晶體諧振器(qi)具有(you)很高(gao)的(de)品質(zhi)因數和(he)穩定性(xing),可用(yong)于對講(jiang)機、電(dian)子手表、電(dian)視機、電(dian)子儀(yi)器(qi)等產(chan)品的(de)諧振腔,如圖3.2所(suo)示(shi)為石(shi)英晶體的(de)壓電(dian)模型。


圖 2.jpg


 此外(wai),酒(jiu)石酸(suan)鉀鈉、酒(jiu)石酸(suan)乙烯(xi)二銨、酒(jiu)石酸(suan)二鉀、硫(liu)酸(suan)鉀等水溶性壓(ya)電晶(jing)體是常見的(de)單晶(jing)壓(ya)電材料。目(mu)前(qian),通過(guo)單晶(jing)化來提高多晶(jing)壓(ya)電陶瓷(如鈦酸(suan)鉛)的(de)壓(ya)電性能是壓(ya)電材料的(de)研究(jiu)熱點(dian)之一。



4. 多晶(jing)體壓(ya)電(dian)陶(tao)瓷


  多晶體壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)陶瓷是一(yi)種具有(you)壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)效應(ying)的(de)功能陶瓷材(cai)(cai)(cai)料(liao)(liao),在高溫(wen)下(xia)將氧化物混合燒結,可以(yi)實(shi)現機械能和(he)電(dian)能的(de)轉換(huan)。目前(qian)市(shi)場上常見的(de)多晶體壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)陶瓷為鋯鈦(tai)酸鉛(PZT)系壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)材(cai)(cai)(cai)料(liao)(liao)。壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)材(cai)(cai)(cai)料(liao)(liao)的(de)研究熱點主要有(you):①. 低溫(wen)燒結PZT陶瓷;②. 大(da)功率高轉換(huan)效率的(de)PZT壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)陶瓷;③. 壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)復合材(cai)(cai)(cai)料(liao)(liao);④. 無鉛壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)陶瓷;⑤. 單晶化。如圖3.3所示為壓(ya)(ya)(ya)(ya)電(dian)陶瓷的(de)發展歷史。


圖 3.jpg



5. 壓電晶體的主要(yao)性能參(can)數(shu)


 a. 壓電應變常數 d33


 壓(ya)(ya)電應(ying)(ying)變常數表(biao)示單位電壓(ya)(ya)作用于(yu)壓(ya)(ya)電晶體時(shi)所產(chan)生的應(ying)(ying)變大小,其(qi)表(biao)達式為


  d33 = Δt/U


  式中 Δt-晶片在厚(hou)度方向的形變量,單(dan)位為m(米);

 

         U--施加在壓電晶(jing)片(pian)兩面的應力,單位為V(伏特)。


 壓電應變常數d33是測量壓電晶體材料發射靈敏度的重要參數。d33值越大,發射性能越差,發射靈敏度越高。


b. 壓電電壓常數 g33


 壓電(dian)(dian)電(dian)(dian)壓常數表示施加在(zai)壓電(dian)(dian)晶片上的單位應力所產生的壓電(dian)(dian)梯(ti)度大(da)小,其表達式(shi)為


  g33 = Up/P


 式中(zhong) P-施加在壓電晶片兩面的應力,單位為N(牛);


      Up-晶片表面產生的電壓梯度,Up = U/t,單位為V/m(伏特/米)。


c. 介(jie)電常數 ε


介電常數(shu)是表(biao)示(shi)絕緣能(neng)力特性的一個系數(shu),其表(biao)達式為


 ε=C t/A


 式中 C-電容(rong)器電容(rong);


       t-電容器極板(ban)距離;


       A-電容器極板面積。


 由介(jie)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)常數表(biao)達(da)式可知(zhi),當電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)容器極板(ban)距離和面(mian)積一定(ding)時(shi)(shi),介(jie)電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)常數ε越(yue)大,電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)容C越(yue)大,即電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)容器存儲電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)量越(yue)多。壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)晶體的ε應根(gen)據(ju)不同(tong)的用途(tu)來(lai)選取。超聲波檢測的壓電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)晶體,頻率要求高時(shi)(shi),應小(xiao)一些。由于ε小(xiao)、C小(xiao),電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)容器充放電(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)(dian)時(shi)(shi)間短,頻率高。反之(zhi),應該(gai)大一些。


d. 機(ji)電耦合系數 K


 機電(dian)耦(ou)合系數K,表(biao)示壓電(dian)材(cai)料機械能(聲(sheng)能)與電(dian)能的(de)轉換效率,即


 K= 轉換(huan)的(de)能量(liang)(liang)/輸(shu)入的(de)能量(liang)(liang)


 對于正(zheng)壓電(dian)(dian)效應(ying),K=轉換的(de)電(dian)(dian)能(neng)/輸入的(de)機械能(neng)。對于負壓電(dian)(dian)效應(ying),K=轉換的(de)機械能(neng)/輸入的(de)電(dian)(dian)能(neng)。


 探頭晶片振動時,會產生厚度和徑向兩個方向的伸縮變形,因此機電耦合系數分為厚度方向Kt和徑向Kp。Kt大,探測靈敏度高;Kp大,低頻諧振波增多,發射脈沖變寬,導致分辨力降低,盲區增大。


e. 機械品質因子 θm


 壓電晶片(pian)在諧振時儲存的(de)機(ji)械能(neng)E與一個周期(qi)內(nei)損(sun)耗的(de)能(neng)量E損(sun)之比稱(cheng)為機(ji)械品質(zhi)因子θm.


 壓電晶片振動損耗的能量主要是內摩擦引起的。θm值對分辨率有較大的影響:θm值越大,表示損耗越小,晶片持續震動時間長,脈沖寬度大,分辨率低。反之,θm值越小,表示損耗越大,脈沖寬度小,分辨率就高。


f. 頻率常數Ni


 由(you)駐波理論(lun)可(ke)知,壓電晶(jing)片(pian)在(zai)高(gao)頻電脈沖激(ji)勵(li)下產生(sheng)共振的(de)條件是(shi)


1.jpg


 這意味著壓電晶片厚度與固有頻率的乘積是一個常數,稱為頻率常數,用Ni表示。厚度一定,頻率常數大的晶片材料,其固有頻率高。晶片材料一定,頻率越高,厚度越小。


g. 居里溫度Tc


 與磁性材料一樣,壓電材料的壓電效應與溫度有關。它只能在一定的溫度范圍內產生,超過這個溫度范圍,壓電效應就消失了。壓電材料的壓電效應消失的溫度稱為壓電材料的居里溫度,用Tc表示。例如,石英Tc=570℃,鐵酸鋇Tc=115℃.常見壓電材料性能參數見表3.1。


表 1.jpg



6. 壓電(dian)晶體(ti)的選用原則


 對于壓(ya)電超聲換能(neng)器采用的壓(ya)電晶片(pian),其選用原(yuan)則(ze)可參考如下(xia):


  a. 性能指(zhi)標適當(dang),以滿足(zu)具(ju)體使(shi)用要求(qiu)(qiu)為度量,不(bu)宜過分追求(qiu)(qiu)各項性能的高指(zhi)標;


  b. 工(gong)作性(xing)能要穩定、可(ke)靠;


  c. 價格低廉(lian),加工方便(bian)。


超聲波(bo)換能(neng)器對晶片的要(yao)求如下:


  a. 機電(dian)耦合系數K較(jiao)大,以便(bian)獲得較(jiao)高的轉換效率;


  b. 機械品質因子θm較大,以便獲得較高的轉換效率;


  c. 壓電應變常數d33和壓電電壓常數g33較大,以便獲得較高的發射和接收靈敏度;


  d. 頻率常數Ni較大,介電常數ε較小,以便獲得較高的頻率;


  f. 居里溫度Tc較高,聲阻抗 Z 適當。